Biblical Hebrew

Closely associated with the vowel points are the reading signs, which were likely introduced around the same time. These signs guide pronunciation and nuance in reading Hebrew consonants. There are two main types of diacritical signs: Dot Above the Letter ש: Distinguishes between שׁ (with dot on the right, pronounced sh) and שׂ (with dot on the left, pronounced s). Dot Inside a Consonant: This indicates the consonant has a stronger or more emphasized pronunciation. On the other hand, a horizontal stroke placed above a consonant—known as Rāphè—serves to indicate that the consonant does not have the stronger pronunciation.… Learn Hebrew

In Biblical Hebrew, alongside full vowels, there exists a class of reduced or “half vowels” known as Šewâ, representing remnants of earlier short vowels. The simple Šewâ (־ְ) can be either vocal (mobile) or silent (quiescens): the vocal Šewâ is pronounced and forms part of a syllable, often appearing at the beginning or within words (e.g., קְטֹל, יִקְטְלוּ), while the quiescent Šewâ is silent and serves as a syllable divider (e.g., מֶלֶךְ, קָטַלְתְּ). Historically, Šewâ evolved from elided short vowels, and its pronunciation was often influenced by surrounding vowels, as reflected in Greek transliterations.… Learn Hebrew

Hebrew vowel signs represent a range of sounds, but they do not fully capture nuances of vowel length and quality, making it essential to understand each vowel’s character. The first class (A-sounds) includes Qameṣ (long or tone-lengthened â), Pathaḥ (short ă), and Segôl (a variant of a or ĕ). The second class (I/E-sounds) features long and short i (with or without Yod), long ē from diphthong ay, Sērē (tone-lengthened ē from ĭ), and Segôl used as a reduced or helping vowel.… Learn Hebrew

The Tiberian system of Hebrew vowel signs, though traditionally classified by vowel length, primarily reflects vowel quality rather than fixed quantity—a point emphasized by scholars who argue that signs like Segōl, Ṣērē, and Ḥōlēm indicate sound type (ä, e, o) rather than duration. The Masoretes aimed to preserve accurate pronunciation, not phonological theory, and later grammatical distinctions (e.g., Qimchi’s “mothers” and “daughters” of vowels) reflect post-Masoretic analysis. Each vowel sign—such as Qāmēṣ (ā or short ŏ), Pāṯaḥ (ă), Ḥîrēq (ĭ/î), Ṣērē (ē/ê), Šûrēq (û), and Qibbûṣ (ŭ)—has specific phonetic and orthographic roles, with placement typically under the consonant, except for Ḥōlēm, which appears above.… Learn Hebrew

Hebrew originally employed three primary vowels—a, i, and u—with e and o emerging later through contraction or modification. Over time, diphthongs like ai and au evolved into ê and ô, a process paralleled in Arabic, Greek, and Latin. Initially, Hebrew represented vowels using consonants such as ה, ו, and י, especially in final positions, with these letters gradually assuming vowel functions through phonetic contraction. Epigraphic evidence from inscriptions like Mêšaʿ and Siloam illustrates both the development and inconsistencies in this system.… Learn Hebrew

This section presents a revised and accessible overview of the pronunciation and classification of Hebrew consonants, emphasizing their phonetic precision and grammatical significance. Drawing on comparative Semitic linguistics, ancient transcriptions, and Jewish pronunciation traditions, it explains how accurate articulation—especially of gutturals, sibilants, and emphatics—illuminates key grammatical patterns. The section details the dual nature of the Begadkefat letters, the articulatory features of each consonant, and their classification by place and manner of articulation, following models like those of Sievers and Haupt. It also explores historical pronunciation shifts, regional variations, and the phonological structure underlying Hebrew’s consonantal system.… Learn Hebrew

This section offers a revised and reader-friendly presentation of the Hebrew consonants, drawing from a rich scholarly tradition that spans Semitic epigraphy, biblical manuscripts, and linguistic theory. It introduces the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet, detailing each letter’s form, name, pronunciation, and numerical value, while also explaining the five final letter forms and their mnemonic. The evolution of the Hebrew script—from Old Hebrew and Phoenician roots to the square Aramaic-derived script used today—is traced through inscriptions and manuscript evidence. The section also explores the symbolic origins of letter names, theories on the alphabet’s development, and its use in acrostics and numerology.… Learn Hebrew

The study of Hebrew grammar is systematically divided according to the three essential components of every language: Sounds — represented by letters and joined into syllables Words — formed from roots and structured by rules of inflexion Sentences — composed of words arranged by syntactic laws 1. The Elements: Sounds and Writing This foundational section addresses: The nature and interrelation of Hebrew sounds Their representation through written letters Correct pronunciation of the letters (orthoepy) The standard orthography of the Hebrew script It also examines the combination of sounds into syllables and words, establishing the rules governing: Sound formation and modification Syllabic structure Phonological processes within the Hebrew lexicon 2.… Learn Hebrew