The evolution of Hebrew vowel quantity reflects a dynamic interplay of phonological, morphological, and syntactic factors, many of which are clarified through comparison with related Semitic languages like Arabic. Short vowels in open syllables were often reduced to vocal Šewâ (e.g., עֲגָלָה from ʿăgălăt), while tone-bearing or pretonic syllables frequently saw lengthening (ă → ā, ĭ → ē, ŭ → ō). When tone was lost, these long vowels could revert to short or become Šewâ. Original vowels often reappear in closed, toneless syllables (e.g., יָד → יַד־יְהוָה). Vowel lengthening also occurs when syllables open through consonant shifts, consonant weakening, or pausal forms. Conversely, vowel reduction happens when tone shifts forward, leading to weakened or lost vowels (e.g., שֵׁם → שְׁמִי). Attenuation includes ă becoming ĭ in closed syllables and construct forms (e.g., מִדּוֹ from מַדּוֹ). Seghôl often arises from weakened ā or guttural influence. Finally, dissimilation avoids vowel repetition by altering one vowel (e.g., לוּלֵא for lû lô). These changes reveal the intricate phonological adjustments that shaped the Masoretic vocalization system.
1. General Observations: The Hebrew vowel system underwent significant change before reaching the Masoretic form. Many current vowel phenomena are best understood by comparing Hebrew with related Semitic languages, especially Arabic. From this comparison and internal linguistic analysis, several principles become evident.
2. Short Vowels Reduced to Šewâ: In many open syllables, original short vowels have been reduced to a mere vocal Šewâ. Examples include:
- עֲגָלָה (from ʿăgălăt) – “a waggon”
- צְדָקָה (from ṣădăqăt) – “righteousness”
- קָֽטְלוּ vs. Arabic qătălŭ
- יְקַטְּלוּ vs. Arabic jŭqattĭlŭ
3. Lengthening in Tone-Syllables: Originally short vowels often became tone-long vowels in syllables with tone or in pretonic open syllables:
- ă → ā
- ĭ → ē
- ŭ → ō
These can revert to short vowels or become Šewâ when the tone is lost, as seen in forms like מְטַר (from מָטָר), עִקְּבֵי (dual construct of עָקֵב), or יִקְטְלוּ (from יִקְטֹל).
4. Restored Original Vowels: In closed syllables that lose their tone, original short vowels often return:
- יָד → יַד־יְהוָה
- בֵּן → בֶּן־הַמֶּ֫לֶךְ
- אֵם → אִמִּי
5. Lengthening of Vowels: Short vowels lengthen when:
- (a) A syllable becomes open by transferring its final consonant to a following syllable (e.g., קְטָלוֹ, סוּסָתִי).
- (b) A final consonant is weakened or dropped (e.g., בֵּרַךְ for birrakh).
- (c) A weak consonant quiesces (e.g., מָצָא from מָצַא).
- (d) A word is in pause or before the article (e.g., וְקָֽטַלְתָּ).
6. Vowel Reduction and Šewâ: When tone shifts forward, a full vowel may weaken to Šewâ or be lost entirely:
- שֵׁם → שְׁמִי, דָּבָר → דְּבַר
- צְדָקָה → צִדְקַת, בְּרָכָה → בִּרְכַּת
7. Attenuation of Vowels:
- (a) ă is reduced to ĭ in closed syllables: מִדּוֹ from מַדּוֹ, צִדְקִי from צֶדֶק
- (b) In construct forms and when followed by Begadkephath: בִּגְדֵי from בֶּגֶד
8. Special Cases of Seghôl: Arises from weakening ā to ĕ, seen in forms like:
- אֶבְיָתָר, אֶבְיָסָף, יֶהְדֹּף
- Also due to influence from gutturals: אֶחָיו, פֶּחָה
9. Dissimilation: To avoid two similar vowels occurring in succession, Hebrew occasionally alters one of them. Examples include:
- לוּלֵא for lû lô
- חִיצוֹן from חוּץ, רִאשׁוֹן from רֹאשׁ
