Morphology in Biblical Hebrew revolves around a triliteral root system that yields an extensive family of meanings through structured patterns and inflections. Verb stems (binyanim) like Qal, Piel, and Hiphil shape valency and voice, while conjugations express person, gender, number, and aspect. Nouns adapt for gender and number—including dual forms—and shift between absolute and construct states to convey possession. Adjectives reflect noun agreement, participles bridge verbal and adjectival roles, and infinitives serve both syntactic and emphatic functions. Irregularities, such as suppletive plurals and weakened roots, introduce nuance. Altogether, Hebrew morphology encodes sacred meaning through systematic variation and grammatical artistry.
Introduction
Morphology is the study of how words are formed and how they change to express grammatical meaning. In Biblical Hebrew, morphology is highly systematic and root-based, relying on a trilateral root system (usually three consonants) to generate a wide array of related words. Inflectional morphology modifies these words to indicate tense, gender, number, person, and state. This article provides a comprehensive overview of Biblical Hebrew morphology, focusing on how word formation and inflection function within verbs, nouns, adjectives, and other parts of speech.
1. The Trilateral Root System
At the heart of Biblical Hebrew morphology is the root (shoresh, שֹׁרֶשׁ), typically composed of three consonants. This root expresses a core semantic idea, which is then shaped by various patterns (mishqalim) and verb stems (binyanim).
Examples:
- כ־ת־ב → “to write”
- מִכְתָּב – “letter”
- כָּתוּב – “written”
- כְּתוּבָה – “writing / marriage document”
This pattern-based morphology allows Hebrew to build entire families of meaning from a single root.
2. Verb Morphology
A. Binyanim (Verb Stems)
Biblical Hebrew verbs appear in seven primary binyanim, which alter the voice, valency, or aspect of the root.
| Binyan | Name | Function | Example (כ־ת־ב) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Qal | Simple active | Basic meaning | כָּתַב – “he wrote” |
| Niphʿal | Passive/reflexive | Passive of Qal | נִכְתַּב – “it was written” |
| Piel | Intensive active | Emphatic or causative | כִּתֵּב – “he inscribed” |
| Pual | Intensive passive | Passive of Piel | כֻּתַּב – “it was inscribed” |
| Hiphil | Causative active | He caused to write | הִכְתִּיב – “he dictated” |
| Hophal | Causative passive | Passive of Hiphil | הֻכְתַּב – “it was dictated” |
| Hitpael | Reflexive/reciprocal | He wrote himself | הִתְכַּתֵּב – “he corresponded” |
B. Conjugations and Inflection
Verbs are conjugated for:
- Person (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
- Number (singular, plural)
- Gender (masculine, feminine)
- Tense/Aspect (perfect, imperfect, imperative, infinitive, participle)
Example – Perfect Qal of כ־ת־ב:
- כָּתַבְתִּי – I wrote
- כָּתַבְתָּ – you (m.s.) wrote
- כָּתַב – he wrote
- כָּתְבָה – she wrote
3. Noun Morphology
Nouns in Biblical Hebrew are inflected for:
- Gender: Masculine or Feminine
- Number: Singular, Plural, Dual
- State: Absolute or Construct
A. Pluralization
| Singular | Plural | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| מֶלֶךְ | מְלָכִים | Kings (masculine) |
| תּוֹרָה | תּוֹרוֹת | Laws (feminine) |
B. Construct State
Used to express possession or close association:
- בֵּית מֶלֶךְ – “the house of a king”
- דִּבְרֵי יִרְמְיָהוּ – “the words of Yirmeyahu”
The construct form may alter the vowel pattern of the noun.
4. Pronoun Morphology
A. Independent Pronouns
Used as subjects or for emphasis.
- אֲנִי – I
- אַתָּה – you (m.s.)
- הֵם – they (m.)
B. Pronominal Suffixes
Attached to nouns, prepositions, and verbs.
- סִפְרִי – “my book”
- סִפְרוֹ – “his book”
- סִפְרֵנוּ – “our book”
5. Adjective Morphology
Adjectives agree with nouns in gender, number, and sometimes state.
- אִישׁ גָּדוֹל – “a great man”
- אִשָּׁה גְּדוֹלָה – “a great woman”
- אֲנָשִׁים גְּדוֹלִים – “great men”
Some adjectives have irregular plurals, especially color terms and numerals.
6. Participles and Infinitives
A. Participles
Verbal adjectives that express ongoing action or state.
- שֹׁמֵר – “guarding” / “keeper”
- יֹשֵׁב – “dwelling” / “inhabitant”
They can act as nouns or verbs depending on context.
B. Infinitives
Two types:
- Infinitive Construct: often preceded by prepositions (e.g., לִכְתֹּב – “to write”)
- Infinitive Absolute: used for emphasis or stylistic variation (e.g., כָּתוֹב כָּתַבְתִּי – “surely I wrote”)
7. Morphological Irregularities
Some nouns and verbs exhibit irregular forms:
- Suppletive forms: e.g., אִישׁ → אֲנָשִׁים (“man” → “men”)
- Geminate roots: roots where the second and third consonants are the same (e.g., ס־ב־ב) may simplify or double letters
- Weak roots: roots with gutturals or ו/י may collapse vowels or shift forms
The Architecture of Meaning
Biblical Hebrew morphology is a remarkably systematic and flexible system that transforms a simple three-letter root into a richly expressive web of words. Through patterns of formation and rules of inflection, the language conveys person, action, relationship, and nuance. Mastery of morphological principles opens the door to deeper comprehension of the Hebrew Bible, where every prefix, suffix, and vowel change contributes to the unfolding of sacred meaning.
