Hebrew originally employed three primary vowels—a, i, and u—with e and o emerging later through contraction or modification. Over time, diphthongs like ai and au evolved into ê and ô, a process paralleled in Arabic, Greek, and Latin. Initially, Hebrew represented vowels using consonants such as ה, ו, and י, especially in final positions, with these letters gradually assuming vowel functions through phonetic contraction. Epigraphic evidence from inscriptions like Mêšaʿ and Siloam illustrates both the development and inconsistencies in this system. As Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language, a system of vowel points was introduced between the 6th and 7th centuries A.D., influenced by Syriac models but tailored to Hebrew’s structure. This system marked vowel length, stress, and other phonological features, aiding accurate reading. While the Masoretic vocalization reflects 6th-century Palestinian pronunciation, debates persist regarding its fidelity to earlier stages of Hebrew, especially given variations between Eastern and Western traditions and occasional divergences from earlier orthographic practices.
1. The Primary Vowels and Their Development
Hebrew, like all Semitic languages, originally used three fundamental vowels: a, i, and u. Other vowel sounds—e and o—are later developments arising from contraction or obscuration of these three:
- ĕ: modified from ă or ĭ
- ŏ: from ŭ
- ê: contracted from diphthong ai (originally ay)
- ô: contracted from au (originally aw) or modified from â
Arabic preserves the diphthongal forms ai and au longer than Hebrew does (e.g., שׁוֹט vs. Arabic sauṭ; עֵינַ֫יִם vs. Arabic ʿainain). Contractions to ê and ô occurred later in Arabic, especially after softer consonants. Similar changes appear in Greek (θαῦμα → θῶμα), Latin (plaustrum), and even modern French and German dialects.
2. Vowel Letters and Their Historical Development
(a) Stages of Vowel Representation
Originally, Hebrew expressed vowels only through consonants—primarily ה, ו, י, and sometimes א. The stages of this system evolved as follows:
- Final long vowels—resulting from dropped consonants or syllables—were first marked using the original consonant as a vowel letter.
- The use of ה to indicate final o appears already in the Mêšaʿ inscription. Later, ה also marked ā, ē, and è.
- ו and י eventually represented ô/û and ê/î, respectively—even at word-final position.
(b) Specific Contractions and Quiescents
The development of ו and י as vowel letters results from contractions:
- au → ô, u + ו → û
- ai → ê, i + י → î
Similarly, א became a vowel letter when it merged with a preceding a into â or ā.
(c) Epigraphic Evidence
The Siloam and Mêšaʿ inscriptions provide critical evidence:
- ה is retained in forms like עִירֹה, סוּתֹה—showing its vowel-marking function.
- The Mêšaʿ inscription features spellings like בֵּיתֹה, אַרְצֹה, and לֹה where ה reflects a former syllable now reduced to a final vowel.
- In the Siloam inscription, long vowels not from diphthongs are typically not marked with vowel letters: אִשׁ, חֹצְבִם, מִימִן.
(d) Inconsistencies in Use
While certain vowel letters were used systematically in final positions (e.g., ה for ā), there are inconsistencies:
- Examples: מָאתַ֫יִם, מוֹצָא, רֹאשׁ → preserved consonantal א as vowel marker.
- But יוֹם is spelled without ו, despite the Arabic yaum form.
- Some forms lack expected vowel letters (e.g., בֵּת vs. בֵּית), indicating early loss of awareness of contraction origin.
3. Introduction of Vowel Points
As Hebrew ceased to be a spoken language, its consonantal writing system became too ambiguous for accurate reading. To resolve this, the vowel point system was developed, probably between the 6th and 7th centuries A.D., influenced by Syriac vocalization traditions but adapted for Hebrew’s unique structure.
This system included:
- Marks for short and long vowels
- Distinctions based on stress, gutturals, and vowel lengthening
- Additional diacritics for reading: Maqqef, Mappîq, Dageš, etc.
4. Historical Accuracy and Debates
Though the Masoretic vocalization generally reflects the pronunciation of 6th-century Palestinian Jews, questions remain about how faithfully it preserves ancient Hebrew. For example:
- The LXX often uses Greek diphthongs (e.g., αἰ, αὐ) where Hebrew has ê or ô.
- There are cases in which early Hebrew may have used vowel letters more (or less) than the Masoretic tradition suggests.
- Differences between the Babylonian (Eastern) and Tiberian (Western) schools also complicate assumptions about standard pronunciation.
Despite these concerns, much of the Masoretic tradition finds support in comparative Semitic linguistics and internal patterns of Hebrew morphology.
Key Bibliography
- Gesenius, Geschichte der hebräischen Sprache
- Berliner, Beiträge zur hebr. Grammatik im Talmud und Midrasch
- Bacher, “Diakritische Zeichen in vormasoretischer Zeit” (ZAW 1907)
- Ginsburg, Introduction to the Massorah
- Budde, “Tiberian Vocalization” in Oriental Studies for Nöldeke, 1906
- Geiger, “Massorah bei den Syrern” (ZDMG 1873)
