Hebrew and Arabic are two major languages of the Semitic family, each with a long and rich linguistic history. While they share common linguistic roots, they have evolved into distinct languages with significant differences in phonetics, grammar, vocabulary, and writing systems. Hebrew, the ancestral language of the Israelites, has its roots in ancient Canaan, whereas Arabic developed primarily in the Arabian Peninsula. Although both languages retain many structural similarities due to their Semitic origin, their pronunciation, syntax, and morphology reveal distinct linguistic paths. This article explores the key differences between Hebrew and Arabic, highlighting their phonological, grammatical, lexical, and scriptural distinctions.
1. Phonetic and Phonological Differences
Consonantal Differences
Both Hebrew and Arabic have a rich system of consonants, but they differ in certain sounds and their articulation.
- Arabic has more emphatic and pharyngealized consonants than Hebrew, such as:
- ض (ḍād), ظ (ẓā’), and ق (qāf), which do not have direct equivalents in Hebrew.
- Hebrew has retained some older Semitic sounds that Arabic has modified:
- The Hebrew צ (*tsade*, /ts/) is pronounced differently from Arabic ص (*ṣād*, /sˤ/), which is pharyngealized.
- The Hebrew ק (*qof*, /k/) is pronounced differently from Arabic ق (*qāf*, /q/), which is a uvular plosive.
- Arabic has more fricatives than Hebrew:
- Arabic ث (*thā’*, /θ/) and ذ (*dhāl*, /ð/) have no direct equivalents in modern Hebrew.
Vowel Differences
- Arabic has a more extensive vowel system than Hebrew, with three short and three long vowels: /a, i, u/ and /ā, ī, ū/.
- Hebrew distinguishes between short and long vowels in Biblical Hebrew, but Modern Hebrew has largely reduced vowel length distinctions.
- Arabic frequently uses diphthongs such as /aw/ and /ay/, whereas Hebrew has shifted some diphthongs into monophthongs.
2. Differences in Script
While both Hebrew and Arabic scripts descend from the Phoenician alphabet, they have distinct visual structures and writing conventions.
- Hebrew uses the square script (Ashuri script), which is blocky and angular.
- Arabic script is cursive, meaning letters within words connect fluidly.
- Hebrew has final forms of certain letters (e.g., ך, ם, ן, ף, ץ) that appear differently at the end of a word, while Arabic has different positional letter forms (isolated, initial, medial, and final).
- Arabic has diacritical marks above and below letters to differentiate consonants (e.g., dots in ب, ت, ث), whereas Hebrew letters do not use such marks.
3. Grammatical Differences
Word Order and Syntax
- Hebrew and Arabic both primarily use **Verb-Subject-Object (VSO)** word order in formal speech, but Modern Hebrew commonly uses **Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)** like English.
- Arabic retains more flexibility in word order due to its extensive case system.
Verb Conjugation and Stems
- Both languages use triliteral roots to form words, but their verb paradigms differ.
- Hebrew: כָּתַב (*katav*, “he wrote”) – Qal
- Arabic: كَتَبَ (*kataba*, “he wrote”) – Fa‘ala pattern
- Arabic has a more complex verb system with additional verbal forms:
- Arabic has ten common verb forms (e.g., I: *kataba*, II: *kattaba*, III: *kātaba*, etc.), whereas Hebrew mainly has seven binyanim (verb structures).
Definite Articles
- Hebrew marks definiteness with the **prefix הַ** (*ha-*, “the”), e.g., הַמֶּלֶךְ (*ha-melekh*, “the king”).
- Arabic uses the **prefix ال** (*al-*, “the”), e.g., الْمَلِك (*al-malik*, “the king”).
Case System
- Hebrew has lost the case system that existed in earlier Semitic languages.
- Arabic maintains a fully functional **case system** in formal speech, distinguishing between nominative (-u), accusative (-a), and genitive (-i) endings.
4. Lexical Differences
Although Hebrew and Arabic share many cognates, their vocabulary has diverged over time.
| English | Hebrew | Arabic |
|---|---|---|
| Book | סֵפֶר (*sefer*) | كِتَاب (*kitāb*) |
| Peace | שָׁלוֹם (*shalom*) | سَلَام (*salām*) |
| King | מֶלֶךְ (*melekh*) | مَلِك (*malik*) |
| Sun | שֶׁמֶשׁ (*shemesh*) | شَمْس (*shams*) |
5. Use in Modern Contexts
- Hebrew was revived as a spoken language in the 19th and 20th centuries, adapting modern vocabulary.
- Arabic has many regional dialects, whereas Hebrew has a relatively standardized modern form.
- Both languages have borrowed modern terms from European languages.
Hebrew and Arabic Differences
Hebrew and Arabic, despite their shared Semitic heritage, have distinct phonological, grammatical, and lexical differences. Hebrew evolved within the Canaanite subgroup of Northwest Semitic languages, whereas Arabic developed separately in the Arabian Peninsula. Their scripts, verb systems, and vocabulary reflect their unique linguistic paths. Understanding these differences enhances our appreciation of the broader Semitic language family and the historical evolution of both languages. While they retain mutual intelligibility in certain words and structures, their unique developments make them distinct linguistic systems that continue to thrive in modern times.
