5. The Consonants: Their Forms and Names

This section offers a revised and reader-friendly presentation of the Hebrew consonants, drawing from a rich scholarly tradition that spans Semitic epigraphy, biblical manuscripts, and linguistic theory. It introduces the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet, detailing each letter’s form, name, pronunciation, and numerical value, while also explaining the five final letter forms and their mnemonic. The evolution of the Hebrew script—from Old Hebrew and Phoenician roots to the square Aramaic-derived script used today—is traced through inscriptions and manuscript evidence. The section also explores the symbolic origins of letter names, theories on the alphabet’s development, and its use in acrostics and numerology. Practical features such as writing direction, spacing, and scribal abbreviations are included, along with Masoretic peculiarities like the puncta extraordinaria. By synthesizing historical, philological, and graphical insights, this revision aims to make the foundational structure of the Hebrew consonantal system more accessible to students and scholars alike.

Overview and Resources

An extensive body of literature exists on the forms, names, and pronunciation of Hebrew consonants. Notable contributions include:

• A. Berliner, Beiträge zur hebräischen Grammatik (1879)
• H. Strack, on Hebrew script in PRE³ (1906)
• Lidzbarski, various works including his article in the Jewish Encyclopaedia (1901)
• Kenyon, on “Writing” in Dictionary of the Bible (1902)
• Nöldeke, Praetorius, Grimme, and many others on Semitic epigraphy and alphabet origins

Among the best alphabet tables are those by Euting, Bickell (trans. Curtiss), and Chwolson.

1. Development of the Hebrew Script

The script in use today, called the square script (כְּתָב מְרֻבָּע) or Assyrian script (כְּתָב אַשּׁוּרִי), evolved from earlier forms:

• Old Hebrew script resembled Phoenician and is preserved in inscriptions like the Mesha Stele and Siloam inscription.
• The Samaritans retained a version of Old Hebrew, while the Jews adopted an Aramaic-derived script from ca. 6th–3rd century BC.
• By the 2nd century BC, the square character was established, evident in inscriptions such as at ʿArâq al-Emîr (183 BC).
• Manuscripts such as the Nash Papyrus and Cairo Codex (897 AD) exhibit this evolved script.

Regional variation includes:

• The Tam script with sharp strokes (Ashkenazi tradition)
• The foreign script with rounder letters (Sephardic tradition)

2. Structure of the Alphabet

The Hebrew alphabet comprises 22 consonants. Some have limited vocalic functions. The key details include:

3. Final Letters and Their Forms

Five letters have special forms when appearing at the end of a word:

• ך (final Kaph)
• ם (final Mem)
• ן (final Nun)
• ף (final Pe)
• ץ (final Tsade)

They are remembered using the mnemonic: כמנפץ (Kamnèphāts).

4. Direction and Spacing

• Hebrew is written from right to left.
• Words are not divided across lines.
• To justify lines, some letters are stretched or dilated, especially: ﬡ ﬣ ﬥ ﬨ ﬦ, remembered by the word אֲהַלֶתּם.

5. Origins of the Letter Names

Many letter names reflect objects, such as:

• א (Aleph) = ox
• ב (Beth) = house
• ג (Gimel) = camel or possibly axe
• ד (Daleth) = door
• ש (Shin) = tooth
• ת (Taw) = mark or cross

These associations derive from an acrophonic principle: the letter name begins with the sound the letter represents.

6. Origins and Theories of the Alphabet

Scholars debate the alphabet’s origins:

1. Egyptian theory: Adopted acrophonic principles from Egyptian signs.
2. Babylonian theory: Some believe in a derivation from old Babylonian cuneiform.
3. Mycenaean theory: Claims connections to scripts found in Crete (Evans, Fries).
4. Cypriote theory: Proposes derivation from the syllabary of ancient Cyprus (Praetorius).

No consensus exists, though Canaan is generally considered the most probable place of origin.

7. Alphabetic Acrostics and Order

Alphabetical sequences are evident in biblical poems such as:

• Psalm 119 (8-verse strophes for each letter)
• Lamentations 1–4 (alphabetic acrostics)
• Psalm 25, 34, 37, 111, 112

These show awareness of the letter order and often serve mnemonic or stylistic purposes.

8. Numerical Use of Letters

Hebrew letters are also numerals:

• א–ט = 1–9
• י–צ = 10–90
• ק–ת = 100–400

• 15 is written טו instead of יה to avoid forming the divine name יהוה.
• Thousands are indicated with double dots above the letter.

9. Abbreviations and Scribal Signs

Later Jewish texts use:

• יש׃ = ישראל
• פ׃ = פלני
• וגו׃ = etc., short for “and so forth”

Abbreviations were often marked by points or strokes.

10. Masoretic Peculiarities

The 15 puncta extraordinaria (extraordinary dots) are discussed in Talmudic tradition. These marks, found over letters or words in specific verses (e.g., Genesis 16, Numbers 3, Isaiah 44), are thought to represent critical annotations.Further research: L. Blau, E. Königsberger, and others.