The history of the Hebrew language is a complex interplay of identity, sacred tradition, and linguistic evolution. Originally unnamed in the Old Testament, Hebrew was later termed יְהוּדִית (“the Jews’ language”) and ἑβραϊστί, although often used interchangeably with Aramaic. Rooted in the broader Canaanite linguistic sphere, Hebrew shares deep affinities with Phoenician but developed a standardized literary form remarkably consistent in consonantal structure. Early inscriptions like the Moabite Stone and Siloam Inscription provide rare glimpses into ancient usage. The language underwent two main periods—pre-exilic and post-exilic—marked by stylistic shifts and growing Aramaic influence. Features such as scriptio plena, poetic accentual meter, and dialectal traces from northern tribes underscore its dynamic character. The Masoretic tradition later formalized pronunciation with vowel points, though the spoken form had long since receded. Despite its ancient origins, Hebrew’s resilience as a literary and liturgical language ensured its preservation well beyond its vernacular decline.
1. Terminology and Designation
The term Hebrew language typically refers to the language of the sacred writings of the Israelites preserved in the Old Testament canon. It is distinguished from the post-biblical “New Hebrew” (e.g., Mishnaic and Rabbinic literature). The designation “Hebrew language” (לָשׁוֹן עִבְרִית, γλῶσσα τῶν Ἑβραίων, ἑβραϊστί) is absent from the Old Testament itself. Instead, expressions such as “language of Canaan” (Isaiah 19:18) and יְהוּדִית (the Jews’ language, cf. 2 Kings 18:26, Isaiah 36:11, Nehemiah 13:24) occur. The term יְהוּדִית reflects the post-exilic expansion of the term “Jew” to encompass the whole nation.
2. Hebrew vs. Israelite
The name Israelite (בְּנֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל) was used by the people themselves as a national and religious title, while Hebrew (עִבְרִים) was the name used by outsiders or in contexts contrasting Israel with other nations. The word is etymologically connected with עֵבֶר (“beyond”), referring to those who came from across the Jordan or Euphrates. Later genealogical traditions associated the name with the patriarch Eber, making it more inclusive than its original geographic connotation. The Greek and Latin forms (Ἑβραῖοι, Hebraei) derive from the Aramaic ʿebrāyā, rather than directly from the Hebrew.
3. Early Use and Shifting Terminology
The term ἑβραϊστί is first found in the prologue to the Book of Sirach (ca. 130 B.C.) and appears in the New Testament (e.g., Revelation 9:11) to refer to Hebrew. However, in texts like John 5:2 and Acts 21:40, it may actually indicate the Aramaic spoken in Palestine. Josephus also used the term to describe both Biblical Hebrew and contemporary Aramaic. Jewish-Aramaic translations of Scripture (e.g., Targums) were the first to call Hebrew the “sacred language,” in contrast to the Aramaic vernacular.
4. Early Epigraphic Hebrew
Aside from the Hebrew Bible, very few examples of early Hebrew or Canaanite writing survive:
- The Moabite Stone (Mesha Inscription), ca. 850 B.C., discovered at Dibon, recounts battles between Moab and Israel (cf. 2 Kings 3).
- The Siloam Inscription, ca. 8th century B.C., found in a tunnel in Jerusalem, records the construction of a water conduit.
- About 40 seal-stones with ancient Hebrew inscriptions, mostly containing proper names.
- Maccabean coinage from Simon onwards (ca. 140 B.C.), including inscriptions in Hebrew script.
5. Consistency of Biblical Hebrew
Throughout the Hebrew Bible and related epigraphic sources, the language remains strikingly uniform in consonantal structure. This suggests an early standardization of Biblical Hebrew as a literary language, reinforced by its sacred status and careful transmission.
6. Canaanite and Phoenician Relations
Of all Semitic languages, the closest to Hebrew is Canaanite (Phoenician). This is evidenced by many Hebrew place and personal names of Canaanite origin, and by linguistic features found in the El-Amarna tablets (ca. 1400 B.C.).
Phoenician inscriptions, primarily epitaphs and votive texts, survive in considerable numbers. Of note is the sarcophagus of King Ešmûnazar of Sidon (now in the Louvre). Punic, the later form of Phoenician, also survives in literary fragments (e.g., Plautus’ Poenulus). These sources give us insight into pronunciation and grammar.
Examples of Phoenician Vocabulary
Words include: אל (God), אדם (man), בן (son), בת (daughter), מלך (king), זבח (sacrifice), שמש (sun), ארץ (land), ים (sea), אבן (stone), כסף (silver), שמן (oil), אחד (one), שלש (three), שמע (hear), פתח (open), ברך (bless), &c. Names include צדן (Sidon), צר (Tyre), חנא (Hanno), חנבעל (Hannibal).
Phoenician Orthography
Phoenician often omits vowel letters (e.g., בת for בית), uses ת or א for feminine endings, and spells relative clauses with אש. In Punic, וֹ is pronounced û, and ע may be pronounced as o (e.g., מעקר as Mocar).
7. Vowel Tradition and Consonantal Texts
Hebrew texts and inscriptions used only consonants. The pronunciation tradition was fixed by the Masoretes in the 7th century A.D. using a system of vocalization and accents. Scrolls of the Law today still omit vowel points per ancient tradition.
8. Pre-Biblical Hebrew and Semitic Roots
Earlier stages of Hebrew can be reconstructed by:
- Archaisms in poetic and proper names
- Analogy from phonetic change
- Comparison with Arabic, which often preserves older forms
Knowledge of these ground-forms is essential even for elementary grammar, especially for understanding rare or irregular forms in the Old Testament.
9. Periodization of Biblical Hebrew
First Period: Pre-Exilic
Includes much of the Pentateuch, historical books (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings), early Psalms and Proverbs, and prophets from Amos to Isaiah II. The language shows stylistic variation but consistent grammatical structure.
Second Period: Post-Exilic
Marked by increasing Aramaic influence due to political and social changes. Despite this, Hebrew remained a literary language well into the 2nd century B.C. Books from this period include Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles, Esther, Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, and later Psalms.
10. Hebrew Poetry and Meter
Hebrew poetry is characterized by parallelism and rhythm, not classical meter. Unique words, forms, and syntactic features appear, many of which reflect either archaisms or Aramaic influence. Early prophets (e.g., Isaiah, Micah) use poetic language; later prophets (e.g., Haggai, Malachi) lean toward prose.
Accentual Meter
Recent scholarship (notably by Sievers) shows Hebrew poetry uses accentual meter based on the number of stressed syllables per line, not total syllables or vowel quantity. This helps identify interpolations and poetic structure, though limitations exist due to textual corruption and inconsistency in poetic books.
11. Aramaisms and Late Features
Later books feature:
- Lexical borrowings (e.g., בַּר for “son”)
- New meanings (e.g., אָמַר meaning “to command”)
- Frequent use of full spelling (scriptio plena)
- New suffixes and plural forms (e.g., –ין instead of –ים)
Some features, however, are not Aramaisms but remnants of northern dialects of Hebrew.
12. Dialectal Variety and Literary Scope
The only explicit mention of a dialectal difference is in Judges 12:6 (Ephraimites pronouncing ש as ס). Northern Hebrew features are likely present in Judges and Hosea. The full range of ancient Hebrew literature has not survived; the canonical books represent only a portion of what once existed.
