Changes of consonants in Biblical Hebrew arise from processes such as commutation, assimilation, rejection, addition, transposition, and softening, all of which reflect the interaction between phonological tendencies and morphological structure. Commutation involves the interchange of similar consonants, often due to shared articulation or historical variation. Assimilation typically affects the consonant נ, which merges into a following consonant and triggers Dageš forte. Rejection, or elision, occurs when weak consonants like נ, ל, א, ה, ו, or י are dropped at the beginning (aphaeresis), middle (syncope), or end (apocope) of a word. Addition may involve a prosthetic א to ease pronunciation, while transposition rearranges consonants, usually in vocabulary rather than grammar. Softening reflects the historical weakening of consonants, often seen in reduplicated or borrowed forms. These phonological shifts account for many of the irregularities in Hebrew word formation and pronunciation.
a. The changes that occur among consonants—due to word formation, inflexion, euphony, or the natural evolution of the language—include: commutation, assimilation, rejection, addition, transposition, and softening.
1. Commutation
Consonants may be interchanged when they are homorganic (same articulation area) or homogeneous in nature. Examples:
- עָלַץ, עָלַס, עָלַז – all meaning “to exult”
- לָאָה, לָהָה – “to be weary”; Aramaic לְעָא
- לָחַץ and נָחַץ – “to press”
- סָגַר and סָכַר – “to close”
- מָלַט and פָּלַט – “to escape”
Under Aramaic influence and language development, harder consonants were often softened:
- צָחַק → שָׂחַק (“to laugh”)
- גָּעַל → גָּאַל (“to reject”)
Likewise, sibilants often changed into their mute equivalents:
- ז → ד
- שׁ → ת
- צ → ט
These may reflect a return to older phonological stages. However, such commutations are more relevant to lexicography than to grammar. Examples of grammatical relevance:
- ת and ט interchanging in Hithpaʿēl
- ו and י interchanging in verbs with initial י, e.g., יָלַד for וָלַד
2. Assimilation
Assimilation occurs when a final consonant of one syllable merges into the initial consonant of the next, forming a strengthened consonant (e.g., Latin illustris for inlustris, Greek συλλαμβάνω for συνλαμβάνω).
a. Most Common with נ
Examples:
- מִשָּׁם (from min-šām) – “from there”
- מִזֶּה (from min-zè) – “from this”
- יִתֵּן (for yintēn) – “he gives”
Exceptions:
- נ is not assimilated after the prefix לְ, e.g., לִנְגֹּף
- Rarely assimilated before gutturals (sometimes before ח)
- Not assimilated when it is the third root letter, e.g., שָׁכַ֫נְתָּ
b. With ל, ת, ד
Examples:
- יִקָּח (for yilqaḥ) – “he takes”
- מִדַּבֵּר (for mithdabbēr)
- יִטַּמָּא (for yithṭammā)
- אַחַ֫ת for expected אַחַ֫דְתְּ
c. With ה, ו, י
Examples:
- אָֽנָּא (“please!”), possibly from אָהּ נָא
- ו and י sometimes assimilate before sibilants.
In all such cases, the assimilated consonant disappears, and the following consonant takes Dageš forte. At word end, Dageš is generally dropped because the doubling is not audible. Example:
- אַף (“nose”) from ʾanp
3. Rejection
Rejection, or elision, occurs primarily with weak consonants: נ, ל, א, ה, ו, and י.
a. Aphaeresis (beginning of word)
Occurs when weak consonants with Šewâ are dropped:
- נַ֫חְנוּ also appears as אֲנַ֫חְנוּ
- דַּע for וְדַע, קַח for לְקַח
- הִי for נְהִי (Ezekiel 2)
Some apparent aphaereses are likely textual errors, e.g., רַד for יָרַד, שׁוֹב for יָשׁוֹב.
b. Syncope (middle of word)
Occurs especially when Šewâ precedes the weak consonant:
- מוּם from מְאוּם
- יַקְטִיל for יְהַקְטִיל
- לַמֶּ֫לֶךְ for לְהַמֶּ֫לֶךְ
In verbs ending in ו or י (so-called ל״ה verbs), elision also occurs.
c. Apocope (end of word)
Examples:
- גִּלֹה (city name) related to גִּֽילֹנִי
- וַיַּרְא with silent א
See also feminine ending shift from -ַת to -ָה.
4. Addition (Prosthesis)
To aid pronunciation, a prosthetic Aleph is often added:
- אֶזְרוֹעַ and זְרוֹעַ (“arm”)
Possibly also a prosthetic ע in עַקְרָב (“scorpion”).
5. Transposition
Occurs rarely in grammar but more in vocabulary. Example:
- הִשְׁתַּמֵּר for הִתְשַׁמֵּר
- כֶּ֫בֶשׂ vs. כֶּ֫שֶׂב (“lamb”), שִׂמְלָה vs. שַׂלְמָה (“garment”)
6. Softening
Examples of consonantal softening:
- כּוֹכָב (“star”) from an original reduplicated form like kawkabh
- טֽוֹטָפוֹת (“phylacteries”) from ṭaphṭāphôth
- Possibly אִישׁ (“man”) from ʾinš; but see chapter 96 for alternate views
