Polysemy, the presence of multiple, related meanings within a single word, lies at the heart of Biblical Hebrew’s linguistic structure. Root-based and highly context-sensitive, the language builds semantic networks that span grammatical forms—verbs, nouns, adjectives—revealing interconnected layers of meaning.
This dynamic appears in both concrete and abstract domains, such as “heart” representing a physical organ and the seat of emotion, or “head” denoting a body part, a mountain summit, a leader, or the beginning of time. Spatial and temporal meanings often blend fluidly, as with prepositions like עַד (ʿad), which can mark either physical direction or duration.
Functionally related forms, like שָׁפֵט (shofet, “judge”) and מִשְׁפָּט (mishpat, “justice/judgment”), highlight how grammatical roles refine meaning. Common terms like רוּחַ (ruaḥ) and דָּבָר (davar) evoke rich layers, encompassing wind, spirit, breath, or word, matter, and command, depending on their context.
Traditional interpretations—rabbinic, poetic, and philosophical—often draw on these semantic depths. Terms like רֵאשִׁית (reʾshit) and צֶדֶק (tzedek) are read as portals to cosmology, ethics, wisdom, and eschatology.
Rather than mere ambiguity, this multiplicity serves theological and poetic purpose, turning linguistic precision into a tool for revelation, reflection, and spiritual resonance.
What Is Polysemy?
Polysemy refers to the phenomenon where a single word possesses multiple, related meanings. In Biblical Hebrew—a compact, root-based, and context-dependent language—polysemy is not peripheral but foundational. Unlike homonymy, where identical forms have unrelated meanings (e.g., “bat” the animal vs. “bat” used in baseball), polysemy involves a core semantic domain from which diverse nuances emerge. This article explores the richness of polysemy in Biblical Hebrew, drawing from the Masoretic Text, traditional interpretation, and linguistic theory to show how words unfold multiple meanings within context.
1. Polysemy in Lexical Roots and Cognate Forms
Since Biblical Hebrew words typically derive from tri-consonantal roots, meaning often spans across verb, noun, and adjective forms. This system generates robust semantic networks where forms echo and reinterpret each other.
Example: ק-ד-ש (q-d-sh)
- Verb: קָדַשׁ (qadash) – “to sanctify” (e.g., Exodus 19:10)
- Noun: קֹדֶשׁ (qodesh) – “holiness” or “holy place” (e.g., Exodus 28:36)
- Adjective: קָדוֹשׁ (qadosh) – “holy” (e.g., Exodus 19:6)
These forms illustrate a semantic continuum: action (“to sanctify”), state (“holiness”), and quality (“holy”). They are not separate words with incidental similarity but manifestations of a root’s semantic range.
2. Concrete and Abstract Polysemy
לֵב (lev) – “Heart”
- Concrete: Physical organ — for example, anatomical references in descriptions of wounds (cf. Psalm 38:11)
- Abstract: Seat of emotion and will — “Love YHWH your God with all your heart” (Deuteronomy 6:5)
Though often abstract in usage, lev retains a concrete sense as the physical heart, particularly in poetic and lament texts referencing affliction or pain. This shows how Hebrew allows one word to straddle physiology and emotion.
3. Spatial and Temporal Polysemy
עַד (ʿad)
- Spatial: “Up to Gerar” (Genesis 10:19 – עַד גְּרָרָה)
- Temporal: “Until the day of his death” (Genesis 27:4 – עַד־יוֹם מוֹתוֹ)
The preposition ʿad fluidly spans space and time, showing how conceptual boundaries in Hebrew can be both directional and durational.
4. Functional Polysemy in Common Roots
שָׁפֵט (shofet) vs. מִשְׁפָּט (mishpat)
- שָׁפֵט: Judge, one who adjudicates (e.g., Judges 2:16)
- מִשְׁפָּט: Justice, legal ruling, or judgment (e.g., Isaiah 1:17)
While related, these forms must be distinguished. Polysemy operates within the root, but grammatical roles determine specific meanings. Shofet names the actor; mishpat names the action or principle.
5. From Literal to Metaphorical: רֹאשׁ (roʾsh)
- Literal: Head — the anatomical part (Genesis 48:14)
- Topographical: Summit — top of a mountain (Genesis 8:5)
- Political: Chief or leader (Numbers 1:4)
- Temporal: Beginning — as in בְּרֵאשִׁית (Genesis 1:1)
Here, a single word charts elevation, authority, and origin—demonstrating how metaphors from the body structure hierarchy, time, and space.
6. Semantic Range of שָׁלוֹם (shalom)
- Well-being: 2 Samuel 20:9 — הֲשָׁלוֹם אַתָּה
- Peace: Genesis 43:23 — שָׁלוֹם לָכֶם
- Wholeness: Isaiah 54:10 — בְּרִית שְׁלוֹמִי
Note: Exodus 21:19 does not contain שָׁלוֹם. While the legal outcome implies restoration, the term is not explicitly used.
7. Polysemous Function in דָּבָר (davar)
- “Word” — divine utterance (Deuteronomy 8:3)
- “Matter” — legal case (Deuteronomy 17:8)
- “Event” — historical narrative (1 Kings 11:41)
- “Command” — authoritative instruction (Deuteronomy 4:2)
Psalm 119:105
נֵר־לְרַגְלִי דְבָרֶךָ — “Your word is a lamp to my feet” illustrates davar as divine speech guiding moral life.
8. Ambiguity and Interpretation: רוּחַ (ruaḥ)
- Wind: Atmospheric force (Exodus 10:13)
- Spirit: Divine presence (Genesis 1:2 — רוּחַ אֱלֹהִים)
- Breath: Life-giving breath (Genesis 6:17)
- Disposition: Attitude or mindset (Numbers 14:24 — רוּחַ אַחֶרֶת)
In Genesis 1:2, translators must choose between “Spirit of God” or “wind from God.” Both readings are linguistically valid, reflecting theological and poetic richness.
9. Visual and Figurative: עַיִן (ʿayin)
- Literal: Eye (Genesis 3:7)
- Spring: Water source (Genesis 16:7)
- Justice: “Eye for eye” (Exodus 21:24)
- Favor: “Found favor in the eyes of…” (Genesis 6:8)
Vision, judgment, water, and grace converge in this noun, illustrating how Hebrew uses the same word for literal, poetic, and legal functions.
10. Noun-Verb Polysemy: נָשָׂא (nasa)
- “To lift” (Genesis 13:10)
- “To carry” (Genesis 44:1)
- “To forgive” — “carry away sin” (Leviticus 10:17)
- “To exalt” (Isaiah 52:13)
This root bridges physical action and theological meaning. Isaiah 53:4 and Leviticus 16:22 use נָשָׂא to convey atonement through substitution and removal.
11. Polysemy in Ancient Interpretation
רֵאשִׁית (reʾshit) – “Beginning”
- Temporal: Genesis 1:1 — “In the beginning”
- Firstfruits: Jeremiah 2:3 — “Israel was… the first of His harvest”
- Wisdom: Proverbs 8:22 — “YHWH created me as the beginning of His way”
Rabbinic and philosophical traditions read רֵאשִׁית as a portal to layered meanings—cosmic origin, covenantal priority, and personified wisdom.
צֶדֶק (tzedek)
- Righteousness: Psalm 11:7
- Victory/Justice: Isaiah 45:8; War Scroll (1QM)
In Qumran texts, צֶדֶק fuses legal purity with apocalyptic triumph. Justice is not only moral—it is eschatological.
שָׁבַת (shavat)
- To cease: Genesis 2:2
- To rest: Exodus 20:11
The Sabbath encapsulates cessation and restoration. Rabbinic interpretation sees rest not merely as inactivity, but as spiritual harmony with creation.
Polysemy as Theology and Poetry
In Biblical Hebrew, polysemy is neither ambiguity nor accident—it is artistry. A single term can signify wind and spirit, eye and spring, judgment and grace. This complexity invites deeper contextual and theological reading. Words in Hebrew do not merely signify; they resonate across layers of meaning.
To read Hebrew is to enter a world where sacred language breathes, binds, and blossoms through layered meaning. Polysemy turns language into revelation.
